This essay is copyright Alan James Edwards 1998. It may be freely downloaded for personal use, any other use requires the express permission of the author. Please contact alaedw@clara.net if there are any errors or mistakes in this essay, or if you have comments or suggestions.
"To What extent had the Tsarist regime modernised Russia by 1914?"
By 1914, Russia was facing war with Germany, and had become allied with France and Britain. Two nations who in the eyes of the world were modernised and strong. A modernised state in 1914 would have advanced military technology, be an industrialised nation with a healthy output, look after it's citizens, give then the right to vote, and education. A modern nation would be respected and maybe feared. Can this be said of Russia in 1914, can an autocratic system be considered modern?
The Tsar's every wish was law, The Duma established in 1905 was nothing more than his puppet. The Duma consisted of only conservative ministers, and no act could be passed without the Tsars approval. The nobles had the monopoly on voting, the millions of peasants in the country had no influence in government, and found themselves being trod on time and time again. Alexander III, looking for revenge after his father's assassination, had taken back any political concessions that had been given. The Zemstvo's were now tools of the nobles, who as Land Captains gained power over them. Political opposition was growing in Russia, groups such as the Westernisers and Populists were both calling for change. Between January and July 1914, their calls were being answered as there were over 4,000 strikes. Britain, on the other hand was a constitutional monarchy, and could be considered modern. The electorate was growing, and the government was answerable to the people. Laws were debated and voted on, not imposed, and the country was a stable democracy. This too was the case in France, and the United States. This suggests that democratic government was modern, and autocracy was not.
Russian technology was decades behind that of the West. Being the last of the great powers to industrialise, Russia found it difficult to compete with it's more experienced neighbours. Having mainly ice ports made it also difficult to trade. Conditions in Russian factories were poor, and workers found it difficult to make themselves heard as Unions were banned. By 1914, Russian Coal output was 36 million tons, however the USA was producing over 500 tons. Russian Iron and Steel production would have to increase by over 100% to catch it's nearest rival. Russian Oil production was however, the second greatest in the world. Compared to other nations, Russia was economically the weakest, however, internally, Russian production was growing phenomenally, and had a growth rate of nearly 4% compared with the UK's 2.0%. Between 1900 and 1914, Russian Iron, Steel, and Coal production was up over 100%, and there was little reason to doubt that the figures would worsen. The Railways too had doubled their length between 1890 and 1914, however, the railways still were far too limited to make a major impact on economic output. A massive overhaul was required if any difference were to be felt. Stolypin's aim to create a wealthy peasantry was acted upon in 1906. His Agrarian Reform act and subsidiary legislation did much to encourage new techniques. He ended redemption payments and the passport system to give the peasants more incentive to work, few farmers though made a surplus and only ¾ were self sufficient. Farmers also lost 15% of their grain every year to pay off debts, grain they needed to prevent famine. In general, The Russian economy was still the weakest of the great powers, and cannot yet be considered modern.
The average Russian citizen was condemned to a life of illiteracy. School fee's had been quadrupled by Alexander III, so all many people could manage was basic elementary education. Only the Nobles could afford to send their children onto further and higher education. The normal peasant would get very little schooling, and that was the way the Tsar wanted it. An educated peasantry would represent a great threat to his position.The factories in which they worked now had inspectors to make sure that decent working standards were met by employers. However, inspections were rare due to the great distance between factories and towns, and penalties were rarely a problem for deviant employers. On "Bloody Sunday" in January 1905, 96 protesters were shot whilst protesting over the Russo-Japanese war. In a modern society, these protesters would have at least been listened to, if just to quieten them down. The mindless Cossacks had other ideas, and showed the Tsar had little interest, which is not an appropriate attitude for a world leader. All Nicholas II mentions in his diary for January 5 1905 was "Some protesters were shot" he seemed more concerned with walking his dog than the concerns of his people.
Modern states in the early twentieth century had advanced armies, navies, and large merchant fleets with which to dominate world trade. Russia however accounted for less than 5% of the world merchant fleets, and 50% of this was sailed powered. Between 1901 and 1907, the naval ministry has spent over 230 million rules on foreign arms, and the war ministry over 110 million. In 1905 Russia had suffered an embarrassing defeat at the hands of Japan. This would have given Russia a weak reputation in the eyes of it's allies, and showed that the army reforms of the previous century were not working, and were in need of being replaced. A great power that could loose a war to Japan was definitely not a modern state in 1914.
Russia in 1914 was anything but a modern state, and just three years later the Romanovs had fallen. One must consider one important fact however, was it the resulting condition of the war that led to the revolutions of 1917, or underlying internal Russian problems. Wolfson states that "If Russia was not a modern state by 1914, then revolution was inevitable, war or no war" I put it that Russia was not a modern state, and the revolution just three years later was the inevitable result of lack of reform, and of a repressive state. All the key factors of modern states were not present in Russia. Autocracy was outdated, the populus was kept uneducated, Russia was weak militarily and economically. The Tsarist regime had not modernised Russia 1914, and eventually paid the price for it.